Objective 2-1

Describe hindsight bias, and explain how it can make research findings seem like mere common sense.

Hindsight bias (also called the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. Thus, learning the outcome of a study can make it seem like obvious common sense. Scientific inquiry and critical thinking can help us overcome this tendency to overestimate our unaided intuition.

Objective 2-2

Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments.

We are routinely overconfident of our judgments, thanks partly to our bias to seek information that confirms them. Science, with its procedures for gathering and sifting evidence, restrains error by taking us beyond the limits of our intuition and common sense.

Objective 2-3

Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking.

Although limited by the testable questions it can address, a scientific approach helps us sift reality from illusion. Scientific inquiry begins with an attitude—a curious eagerness to skeptically scrutinize competing ideas and an open-minded humility before nature. This attitude carries into everyday life as critical thinking, which examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses outcomes. Putting ideas, even crazy-sounding ideas, to the test helps us winnow sense from nonsense.

 Objective 2-4

Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.

Psychological theories organize observations and imply predictive hypotheses. After constructing precise operational definitions of their procedures, researchers test their hypotheses (predictions), validate and refine the theory, and, sometimes, suggest practical applications. If other researchers can replicate the study with similar results, we can then place greater confidence in the conclusion.

 Objective 2-5

Explain the value of simplified laboratory conditions in discovering general principles of behavior.

Researchers test theoretical principles by intentionally creating a controlled, simplified environment in the lab. Their concern is not the particular behavior being studied, but rather the underlying general principles that help explain many behaviors.

Objective 2-6

Discuss whether psychological research can be generalized across cultures and genders.

Behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions vary across cultures, but the principles that underlie them are shared, in part because of our common biological heritage. Biology also determines our sex, but our culture sets up expectations about what it means to be male or female. Males and females do differ in some ways, but they are biologically and psychologically much more alike than different.

Objective 2-7

Explain why psychologists study animals, and discuss the ethics of experimentation with both animals and humans. Some psychologists study animals out of an interest in animal behavior. Others do so because knowledge of the physiological and psychological processes of animals gives them a better understanding of the similar processes operating in humans. Under ethical and legal guidelines, animals used in psychological experiments rarely experience pain. Nevertheless, animal rights groups raise an important issue: Even if it leads to the relief of human suffering, is an animal’s temporary suffering justified? Occasionally researchers temporarily stress or deceive people to learn something important. Professional ethical standards provide guidelines concerning the treatment of research participants, and university ethics committees safeguard participants’ well-being.

Objective 2-8

Describe how personal values can influence psychologists’ research and its application, and discuss psychology’s potential to manipulate people.

Psychology is not value-free. Psychologists’ own values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice. In psychology as elsewhere, knowledge is power that can be used for good or evil. Psychology has the power to deceive, but so far, applications of psychology’s principles have been overwhelmingly for the good. Psychology can help us reach our goals, but it cannot decide what those goals should be.